Theories of development shape, influences and direct development policies, strategies and practices. Development models and approaches are the processes through which these theories have been put into practice. There are diverse theories of development even as there are diverse definitions and intellectual works on development. As such “Development theories reflect the political positions of their proponents, the places where they developed their philosophical perspective and whether they are predominantly economic, sociological, anthropological, geographic, historical and so on” Peet and Hartwick (2009:21).
Theories of political development and political theories of development views Development as the evolution of societies from traditional form of political, social and economic organisation centred on the family and the tribe into ‘modern’ forms centring on the state. Political theories of development invoke theories on the purpose and best form of organisation of the state, which when established will see to the realisation of the good life and the realisation of the highest standard of living to members of the state. “Political theory assumes that the state should be understood as the best solution to achieving the good life (development)” Thomas (2010:79). Notable political theories include theories of imperialism, protectionism, colonialism, partnership in development, deregulation, sustainable development, liberalism, socialism, Marxism, international peace keeping, development assistance and aids, globalization, elite and leadership, democracy and good governance.
The modernization theory is another theory of development according to Abraham N. Thomas “modernisation refers to the process of social and political changes through which the industrialized west came about the emergence of a capitalist economic order and a liberal, democratic, political system” Thomas (2010:84). In relation to the third world modernisation is used to describe the process of social and political changes in which traditional societies and cultures of the underdeveloped world would pass through, to the modern industrialised culture of the west. The emphasis of the modernization theory was the attainment of modernity as exemplified by the west.
Modernisation is also an ethnocentric model of development because it is styled after development in the west. Modernisation model of development is an uneven process of development, the resultant effect been underdevelopment and dependency. Modernisation theory of development views the attainment of development as the actualisation of modernity which is distinct from local, traditional, socio- economic structures. Modernity as a culture pervades and even prevails over traditional outcomes and systems. In this context the systems, structures and values of indigenous traditional societies, are characterised as underdeveloped and constitute an obstacle to modernisation.
In the vicious circle of poverty theory, development is estimated in terms of the increase in Gross National Product per capita (GNP per capita),brought about by favourable net savings and investment that will in turn result in technological progress. The theory suggests that a high national income will bring about high savings and investment and consequently, increase in the rate of economic growth. The circular relationships between low income, low productivity and economic growth is known as the vicious circle of poverty and it perpetuates the low level of development in least developed countries (LDCs).
The linear stage of growth model is derived from the Marshall plan which was introduced by the US to help Europe’s economy after World War II. It is an economic model which asserts that, industrialization is the only means to attaining economic growth. The Rostow stages of growth model is the most well-known example of the linear stages of growth model, in which he postulates five stages a developing country must pass through to reach the status of a developed economy. They are: traditional society, preconditions for take-off, take-off, drive to maturity and age of high mass consumption. Accordingly,Rostow argues for some three related and necessary conditions for take-off which is defined by Rostow “as an industrial revolution, tied directly to radical changes in the methods of production….” Thomas (2010:101). They include: the investment rate of a country needs to be increased to at least 10% of its GDP, one or two manufacturing sectors with a high rate of growth need to be established and an institutional political and social framework has to exist or to be created in order to promote the expansion of those sectors.
Structuralism is the development theory which lays emphasis on structural aspects which impede the economic growth of developing countries. This development theory focuses on improving the economic structures as a means of boosting economic development. It focuses on improving local infant industries to make them more resilient as well as creating viable domestic economic structures and systems. Intellectuals argue that the best way third world countries can develop, is for the state to take urgent actions.
The dependency theory postulates that the reason for the underdevelopment of the third world countries is as a result of their increased connectedness to the world market, which they believe arises from dependency thinking. Dependency theorists argue that underdeveloped countries remain economically vulnerable unless they reduce their connectedness to the world market. It argues that development in third world countries can best be obtained independent of the global economic system.
The basic needs approach to development was introduced into development theory and practice by the international labour organisation in 1976, to directly address the problem of poverty and inequality in developing countries, which previous economic theories failed to address. The human development theory of development uses ideas from different origins like ecology, sustainable development, feminism and welfare economics. It focuses on how social capital and instructional capital can be deployed to evaluate the value of human capital in an economy. Foremost human development theorists are Mahbubu lHaq and Amartya Sen.
The limiting factor theory lists out certain factors such as backwardness, lack of skilled manpower, capital and an unfavourable natural endowment as factors limiting development. These theories point out to external factors as the means for attaining development. Where there are no capable internal reasons or resources for development, these external factors could include foreign direct assistance, foreign aid, increased influx of capital and foreign skilled personnel, foreign direct investment. “The west diffuses knowledge, skill, organisation, values, technology and capital to the poor nations until overtime its society, culture and personnel became a variant of that which made the Atlantic community economically successful” Thomas (2010:92).
McClelland’s need for achievement theory raises values as the main engineer of development. McClelland derived his theory by studying the nature of man in which he made a discovery of a motivational drive or syndrome which he termed the need for achievement (n-achievement). Therefore his major hypothesis is that, “a nation with a generally high level of ‘n-achievement’ will produce more energetic entrepreneurs who in turn, produce rapid economic development” Thomas (2010:108). This theory postulates that the presence of a high motive or drive for achievement in the society results in increased entrepreneurial activities, which in turn brings about economic development. McClelland was said to have postulated this theory after series of laboratory tests and researches. McClelland further asserts that “pre-industrial or underdeveloped societies suffer from a low achievement orientation” Thomas (2010:110).
Hagen’s status withdrawal theory turned to social and psychological factors to explain growth. Political scientist Everett Hagen, linked differences in human personalities to technological progress and social change. Hagen goes beyond the usual factors for economic development to theorize that they are not as important as the place of innovators and innovation. Hagen turned to social and psychological factors to explain growth. “The innovative personality impels growth” Thomas (2010:112). The prevailing societal makeup and organisation affects or is a factor of the kind of personalities available in the society, whose activities in turn affect the economic growth. Hagen describes innovators as the link between personality and economic development and claims that innovative personalities are not formed by traditional societies. Therefore, he stipulates that underdevelopment is a result of the character types of individuals in the societies and less innovative character types are the cause of underdeveloped societies.
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