Development in General: Meaning, Concept and Definitions.
The term development is undisputedly one of the most widely used terms in many parts of the world today. It can also be described as one of the most sought after goals of various nations across the world, especially those characterised as ‘third world’ and it is also the goal of mankind. Therefore development has various interpretations, definitions and meanings which of course are not unusual for a word that is globally acknowledged and accepted. “Development is an extremely vague and all-encompassing term, which appeals to various groups who often view it in different ways” Farzana (2006:65). It is a global parlance that is always at the centre of discussions in various international conferences and conventions.
Any government, especially in the ‘third world’ that wants to be considered as serious minded must not fail to include the term development in its vocabulary. Hence the definitions and meanings of development are as diverse as they are universal. The universality of the word development constitutes one of the factors which has engendered it to the claws of misinterpretation, misconception and the diversion of the concept of development.
Therefore what is development? And what does development mean? Answering this question would lead us in the journey towards uncovering the concept of development. Anywhere this question is asked, there are bound to be variations of answers both in the biological sense, economic, social and even political. A good start therefore, to answering this question would be to analyse in general what the idea or concept of development connotes before we attach the web of political, social and economic dimensions it has inevitably gotten itself entangled with. Although there are different views of development, one theme which is constant in the various conceptions of development is that, it refers to a change, a progress, an expansion or a transformation from one particular stage to another. Hence the meaning of development is not without the idea of enhancement and improvement.
According to Lansana Keita (2011:115), development “is generally understood etymologically to mean, expansion by a process of growth or growth and differentiation of some entity along lines natural to its kind”. This processes where the stages of growth are usually described by the term development, typically apply to biological processes. In general terms, development according to Bellu (2011:2) means an “event constituting a new stage in a changing situation or the process of change per se. If not qualified, ‘development’ is implicitly intended as something positive or desirable”. Therefore generally, development means change, growth and progress. These are constant ideas in the concept of development. When something changes, expands and grows from a certain previous state to another, it is said to have undergone development.
Having seen what development means generally, we now look specifically at what development as used in the socio-political arena of the modern world connotes. Accordingly, Keita (2011:115) states that “the development of the modern social sciences in western Europe some 150 to 200 years ago, and the recognition by its practitioners that societies have undergone and do undergo transformations in history, established parallels between the processes of biological change and those of society”. Theories of prominent European social scientists such as Marx, Comte and Hegel were based on the idea that human societies were not static but undergo periodic transformations, progress or movements, with these transformations usually considered as moving from a state of being less developed to ones of being more developed. Therefore the concept of societal development is different from say an organism’s biological development or an individual’s psychological development. “When referring to a society or to a socio-economic system, ‘development’ usually means improvement, either in the general situation of the system or in some of its constituent elements” Bellu (2011:2).
Development in the real sense of the word as used in the intellectual parlance of the global socio-economic arena rests on societal aims, different from the general biological view of development. “Development must be conceptualised in relation to societal aims and how society perceives and intends to deal with societal problems.” Knutsson (2009:2). Societal aims constitute one of the major catalysts of the quest for development. The society as a whole is a function of the interplay of man’s activities. These activities are in turn geared towards the fulfilment of man’s basic needs and ultimate goals, as man by nature is not an island and therefore becomes part of the society in order to make ends meet. Obviously development in this context is not far away from the everyday layman’s idea of development as it also implies change, but the distinguishing factor is the fact that development conceptualised in this popular context, has been made to embrace the very sensitive and complex nature of the human condition, life, aspirations, hopes and his quest for the attainment of the better life.
Development in human society according to Rodney (1973:6) “is a many-sided process. At the level of the individual, it implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well-being”. Worthy of note is the fact that, the achievement of any of these aspects of development is very much tied to the state of the society as a whole. “From earliest times, man found it convenient and necessary to come together in groups to hunt and for the sake of survival. The relations which develop within any given social group are crucial to an understanding of the society as a whole: Freedom, responsibility, skill, etc. have real meaning only in terms of the relations of men in society” Rodney(1973:7).
Development has come to encompass the vicissitudes of the human condition. This has over the years resulted in various definitions of development and deep within these definitions, is the human longing, the human aspirations, hopes and goals to attain that change, the good life and improvement in wellbeing. Hence the idea or the concept of development today, carry within it the whole gamut of mankind’s ideological progress in his quest for something new, for a change and ultimately, for the better life. Suffice it to say that development as a concept begins to matter the moment humanity’s ultimate quest or mankind’s deepest longing was introduced into its arms.
The economic pedestal provided the first platform that embraced this quest. As such it shaped the worldview and perspective of development by plainly stating that, attaining economic growth will put material resources and wealth in our pockets with which we will in turn attain the much sort after better life or the good life thereby, actualising the goal of development. But today, the fact still remains that this approach to development has not worked everywhere. Those who view development as an increase in economic growth have given definitions of development not far away from economic activities, such as industrialization. In relation to these, development has been conceived as modernisation or the process of modernisation as every form of urbaneness, industrialization and modernity are conceived as reflections of a developed society. Hence development has been viewed in some quarters as the modernization of societies.
Modernization entails the total transformation of a traditional or pre-modern society into the types of technology and social organization, which are characteristic of advanced, economically prosperous and politically stable nations of the western world. This prevailing worldview has influenced the wild chase for the acquisition of science and technology as it promises the kind of modernisation that is identified with development. The linear perspective or the traditional economic growth perspective of development views development as, “the capacity of a national economy whose initial economic condition has been more or less static for a long time, to generate and sustain an annual increase in its gross national product (GNP) at rates of perhaps 5% or more.” Thomas (2010:29).
But despite the attainment of economic growth development goals were still not attained, as a result the meaning of development took a ‘U’ turn bringing about definitions that focused more on the outcomes of human living conditions. The failures of economic growth and increased productivity in bringing about the much sort after better life and development, is evidenced in the increase in inequality, hunger, widespread absolute poverty, increasingly inequitable income distributions, and rising unemployment etc. Hence this called for a broad conception of development that also includes the outcomes of peoples living conditions in the development process. According to Todaro and Smith, (2012:16).
Development must therefore be conceived of as a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes, and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality, and the eradication of poverty. Development, in its essence, must represent the whole gamut of change by which an entire social system, tuned to the diverse basic needs and evolving aspirations of individuals and social groups within that system, moves away from a condition of life widely perceived as unsatisfactory toward a situation or condition of life regarded as materially and spiritually better.
The 1991 World Bank report asserted that, “the challenge of development is to improve the quality of life especially in the world’s poor countries…..It encompasses as ends in themselves better education, higher standards of health and nutrition, less poverty, a cleaner environment, more equality of opportunity, greater individual freedom and a richer cultural life”. Thomas (2010:30).
“Developmentmeansmakingabetterlifeforeveryone.Inthepresentcontextofa highly uneven world, a better life for most people means, essentially, meeting basic needs: sufficient food to maintain good health; a safe, healthy place in which to live; affordable services available to everyone; and being treated with dignity and respect”. Peet and Hartwick (2009:1). “Development involves the process of improving the quality of all human lives and capabilities by raising people’s levels of living or means of sustenance, self-esteem, and freedom”. Todaro and Smith (2012:21). Dudley Seers therefore, posed the basic questions that according to him pertain to the concept of development.
The questions to ask about a country’s development are therefore: What has been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happening to inequality? If all three of these have declined from high levels, then beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned. If one or two of these central problems have been growing worse, especially if all three have, it would be strange to call the result “development” even if per capita income doubled. Todaro and Smith (2012:15).
This view of the concept of development as given by Seers, simply involves the process of solving the societal and economic challenges of individuals, and the progress of development should be measured as such. Here the effects of development and its impact are emphasized. Gilbert Rist(2002:13) defined development as, “consisting of a set of practices, sometimes appearing in conflict with one another, which require the general transformation and destruction of the natural environment and of social relations. Its aim is to increase the production of commodities (goods and services) geared, by way of exchange, to effective demand.”
AmartyaSen who can be described as one of the leading thinkers and expert on development in the contemporary world, has pioneered the human centred view of development with his philosophy that development has to be more concerned with the lives that we lead and the freedoms we enjoy. Sen conceives development as freedom. He gives a broad definition of development as the process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy.
In his work development as freedom Sen argues for the need for an expanded definition of development to include real human freedoms such as political freedoms, economic facilities social opportunities, transparency guarantees and protective security. This human freedom is both the primary end objective and the principle means of development. In tandem Sen stresses the need to abolish ‘unfreedoms’ such as poverty, famine, starvation, undernourishment, tyranny, poor economic opportunities, and intolerance and over activity of repressive states. Terjesen (2004:3).
Sen gives a more elaborate, extensive and all-encompassing view of development that focuses on removing the limitations of man’s self-actualisation, opportunities and fulfilment in various aspects of his life. Characterizing these limitations as un -freedoms he upholds the principle of the attainment of real human freedoms which encompass the better life for mankind. Sen’s view of development is more philosophical.
The conceptualization of development is progression and non-static this is because the development indicators and indices are changing with time environment society and cross cultural contacts. Development has been understood as a process of national transformation that enhances the capacity of economics to grow and allows societies to expand the opportunities that people have. Fukuda-Parr (2012:6).
The concept of development is the major partitioning knife that has been used to demarcate the so called first and third worlds. Development is in variations; hence we can talk about economic, social, political and human development etc. Economic development is the traditional concept of development usually associated with economic growth which is measured in terms of the increase in per capita income of the economic system. “Growth defined in this way can be seen more as the result of an economic development process, i.e. the transformation of the structure of an economic system, rather than as a development process per se.” Bellu (2011:3). Human development is simply people centred development. The UNDP’s Human Development Report of 2010 describes three basic criteria for the concept of development which are: long and healthy life, knowledge and a decent standard of living. Analysing the concept of development makes us to consider to what end it is ultimately geared towards, be it economic social or political. To further elaborate on the concept of development Todaro and Smith (2012:22), prescribed three basic objectives of development in all societies.
§ To increase the availability and widen the distribution of life sustaining goods such as food, shelter, health, and protection.
§ To raise levels of living including higher incomes the provision of more jobs, better education, and greater attention to cultural and human values all of which serve not only to enhance material wellbeing but also to generate greater individual and national self-esteem.
§ To expand the range of economic and social choices available to individuals and nations by freeing them from servitude and dependence not only in relation to other people and nation states but also to the forces of ignorance and human misery.
To take a broad view of development as against the narrow view of development enables us to include as part of the concept of development the content of the standard of living. When the development concept begins to take in as part of its concern, the conditions of human beings, the life prospects of human beings, especially the social-economic aspects, then it becomes development in the real sense of the word as popularised in today’s intellectual discourse. Development began to matter the moment it stepped into the shoes of providing the linking bridge between man and his unending quest for a fulfilled life, a better life, a good life. Hence development is the term that has been used to describe this longing that all human beings yearn for. In so many quarters, development has been viewed as a term exclusive to economics but the success of economics itself is ultimately tied to what it does to the lives of human beings.
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